The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science

In August 1996, Osama bin Laden made a formal declaration of war against the United States. Almost exactly five years later, al Qaeda inflicted more direct damage on the United States in the space of an hour than the Soviet Union had accomplished during the five decades of the cold war. No one could have predicted such an outcome in 1996 when al Qaeda lost its base in Sudan and moved to Afghanistan.

Since 9/11, al Qaeda has relied on a long established “franchising” strategy to form alliances with affiliate groups and connect them into a comprehensive global effort.